Alcohol consumption recommendations

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Not to be confused with Alcohol law.

Recommendations for consumption of the drug alcohol (also known formally as ethanol) vary from recommendations to be alcohol-free to daily or weekly drinking "safe limits" or maximum intakes. Many governmental agencies and organizations have issued guidelines. These recommendations concerning maximum intake are distinct from any legal restrictions, for example countries with drunk driving laws or countries that have prohibited alcohol. To varying degrees, these recommendations are also distinct from the scientific evidence, such as the short-term effects of alcohol consumption and long-term effects of alcohol consumption.[1]

General recommendations[edit]

See also: Teetotalism

These guidelines apply to men, and women who don't belong to the specific populations.

Teetotalism advocacy by organization[edit]

See also: Non-alcoholic drink and Sober curious
Share of over-fifteen-year-old population who haven't drunk alcohol in the past year (interactive version); in most countries, it exceeds a third.

Recommended alcohol intake limitations[edit]

By country[edit]

For Standard drinks (stated in the references) to grams ethanol, see Standard drink § Definitions in various countries.
Not to be confused with List of countries with alcohol prohibition.
Alcohol consumption per person in 2016. Consumption of alcohol is measured in liters of pure alcohol per person aged 15 or older.[6]

Some governments set the same recommendation for both sexes, while others give separate limits. The guidelines give drink amounts in a variety of formats, such as standard drinks, fluid ounces, or milliliters, but have been converted to grams of ethanol for ease of comparison.

The daily limits range from 10-30 g per day for men and 10-24 g per day for women. Weekly limits range from 27-252 g/week for men and 27-168 g/week for women. The weekly limits are lower than the daily limits, meaning intake on a particular day may be higher than one-seventh of the weekly amount, but consumption on other days of the week should be lower. The limits for women are often but not always lower than those for men.

Country (or region) Teetotalism recommended Low risk Medium to high risk Details
Day Week Day Week
Men Women Men Women Men Women Men Women
Australia 40 g 100 g Reference.[7][8]
Austria 24 g 16 g
Canada "Not drinking has benefits, such as better health, and better sleep."[9] 27 g The Canadian Centre on Substance Use and Addiction has a sliding scale of intakes.
The scale states that at 27 g or less per week, "you are likely to avoid alcohol-related consequences for yourself or others".[9]
Czech Republic 24 g 16 g
Denmark 48 g 120 g Reference.[10]
Finland 168 g 84 g Reference.[11]
Germany Alcoholic beverages pose health risks and ideally should be avoided completely.[12] The German Centre for Addiction Issues recommends everyone to reduce alcohol consumption, regardless of the amounts consumed.[12]
Hong Kong 20 g 10 g Reference.[13]
Iceland 32 g "Stop drinking before reaching five drinks on the same occasion". 1 standard drink in Iceland = 8 g ethanol. 8 g x 4 drinks = 32 g.[14]
Ireland 170 g 140 g Reference.[15]
Italy 24 g 12 g Reference.[16]
Japan 40 g 20 g Reference.[17]
Netherlands Recommends an alcohol consumption level of zero grams. 10 g The Health Council of the Netherlands recommends an alcohol consumption level of zero or no more than 10 g per day.[18]
New Zealand 30 g 20 g 150 g 100 g 50 g 40 g At least two alcohol-free days every week. 30 g for men, 20 g for women To reduce long-term health risks[19] 50 g for men, 40 g for women On any single occasion, to reduce risk of injury.[19]
Norway 20 g 10 g Reference.[20]
Portugal 37 g 18.5 g Reference.[21]
Spain 30 g 20 g Also suggests a maximum of no more than twice this on any one occasion.[21]
Sweden "Not possible to specify a limit for risk-free alcohol consumption."[22] 48 g 120 g The National Board of Health and Welfare defines risky consumption as 10 (Swedish) standard drinks per week (120 g), and 4 standard drinks (48 g) or more per occasion, once per month or more often.
Alcohol intervention is offered for people who exceed these recommendations.[22]



Switzerland 30 g 20–24 g Reference.[18]
United Kingdom "There's no completely safe level of drinking."[23] 112 g a week, spread across 3 days or more. Reference.[23]
USA "People who do not drink should not start drinking for any reason."[24] 28 g 14 g 196 g 98 g Reference.[24]
Specific populations[edit]
Pregnant women[edit]
Main article: Alcohol and pregnancy
A label on alcoholic drinks promoting zero alcohol during pregnancy

Excessive drinking during pregnancy, especially in the first eight to twelve weeks, is associated with fetal alcohol spectrum disorders such as abnormal appearance and behavioral problems. Although low-to-moderate drinking of less than 12g/day is not known to significantly increase the chance of such disorders,[1][25] most guidelines state that no safe amount of alcohol consumption has been established and recommend that pregnant women abstain entirely from alcohol.[26][27] As there may be some weeks between conception and confirmation of pregnancy, most guidelines also recommend that women trying or likely to become pregnant should avoid alcohol as well.

  • Australia: Total abstinence during pregnancy and if planning a pregnancy[28][29]
  • Canada: "Don't drink if you are pregnant or planning to become pregnant."[30]
  • France: Total abstinence[18]
  • Hong Kong: "Abstinence from alcohol during pregnancy is the safest choice."[31]
  • Iceland: Advise that pregnant women abstain from alcohol during pregnancy because no safe consumption level exists.[18]
  • Israel: Women should avoid consuming alcohol before and during pregnancy[18][32]
  • The Netherlands: Abstinence[18]
  • New Zealand: "Women who are pregnant or planning to become pregnant should avoid drinking alcohol."[33]
  • Norway: Abstinence[18][34]
  • Sweden: Abstinence.[35]
  • UK: Abstinence during pregnancy[36]
  • US: Total abstinence during pregnancy and while planning to become pregnant[37]
Breastfeeding women[edit]
Not to be confused with Alcohol and breast cancer.

"Alcohol passes to the baby in small amounts in breast milk. The milk will smell different to the baby and may affect their feeding, sleeping or digestion. The best advice is to avoid drinking shortly before a baby's feed."[38] "Alcohol inhibits a mother's let-down (the release of milk to the nipple). Studies have shown that babies take around 20% less milk if there's alcohol present, so they'll need to feed more often – although infants have been known to go on 'nursing strike', probably because of the altered taste of the milk."[39] "There is little research evidence available about the effect that [alcohol in breast milk] has on the baby, although practitioners report that, even at relatively low levels of drinking, it may reduce the amount of milk available and cause irritability, poor feeding and sleep disturbance in the infant. Given these concerns, a prudent approach is advised."[40]

  • Australia: Total abstinence advised[28][29]
  • Hong Kong: "Avoid alcohol and alcoholic drinks."[41]
  • Iceland: Total abstinence advised because no safe consumption level exists.
  • New Zealand: Abstinence recommended, especially in the first month of breastfeeding so that sound breastfeeding patterns can be established.[33]
  • United Kingdom: Total abstinence advised by some, such as the Royal College of Midwives; others advise to limit alcohol to occasional use in small amounts not exceeding the recommended maximums for non-breastfeeding woman as this is known to cause harm, and that daily or binge drinking be avoided.[39]
Minors[edit]
See also: Legal drinking age

Countries have different recommendations concerning the administration of alcohol to minors by adults.

  • United Kingdom: Children aged under 15 should never be given alcohol, even in small quantities. Children aged 15–17 should not be given alcohol on more than one day a week – and then only under supervision from carers or parents.[42][43][44]
Elderly[edit]
  • Italy: 12 g/day for men over 65.[16]
  • Japan: Less than 29 g/day for the elderly (and women).[18]

By study[edit]

According to a 2024 systematic review and meta-analysis, even at 20 g/day (1 large beer), the risk of developing an alcohol use disorder (AUD) is nearly 3 times higher than non-drinkers, and the risk of dying from an AUD is about 2 times higher than non-drinkers.[45]

Binge drinking[edit]

By country[edit]

  • USA: The National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA) defines the term "binge drinking" as a pattern of drinking that brings a person's blood alcohol concentration (BAC) to 0.08 percent or above.[46] Whatever the numerical definition used, heavy drinking or rapid consumption over a short period of time with the intention of becoming intoxicated is often implied when the term is used colloquially, since four or five drinks consumed over the course of a whole day and as an accompaniment to meals will not have the same effects as the same amount consumed over a couple of hours on an empty stomach.[47]

Specific populations[edit]

Youths[edit]

Caveats[edit]

See also: Alcohol and health

Risk factors[edit]

The recommended limits for daily or weekly consumption provided in the various countries' guidelines generally apply to the average healthy adult. However, many guidelines also set out numerous conditions under which alcohol intake should be further restricted or eliminated. They may stipulate that, among other things, people with liver, kidney, or other chronic disease, cancer risk factors, smaller body size, young or advanced age, those who have experienced issues with mental health, sleep disturbances, alcohol or drug dependency or who have a close family member who has, or who are taking medication that may interact with alcohol,[49] or suffering or recovering from an illness or accident, are urged to consider, in consultation with their health professionals, a different level of alcohol use, including reduction or abstention.

Activities[edit]

Furthermore, the maximum amounts allowed do not apply to those involved with activities such as operating vehicles or machinery, risky sports or other activities, or those responsible for the safety of others.[40][50][51]

Moreover, studies suggest even moderate alcohol consumption may significantly impair – neurobiologically beneficial and -demanding – exercise (possibly including the recovery and adaptation).[52][53][54][55]

Daily consumption, habituation and addiction[edit]

As of 2022, moderate consumption levels of alcoholic beverages are typically defined in terms of average consumption per day. However, when drinking becomes a chronic daily activity the consumption puts individuals at an increased health risk[56][medical citation needed][additional citation(s) needed] as it may lead to habituation, desensitization (consumption-induced tolerance), progressively increasing average dosages and addiction.[citation needed]

According to the CDC, it would be important to focus on the amount people drink on the days that they drink.[57] However, few studies or guidelines distinguish between or compare "moderate consumption" patterns (i.e. frequency, timing and dosage/intensity[58] per session) of occasional drinking and daily drinking.[citation needed] One review showed that among drinkers (not limited to moderate consumption levels), daily drinking in comparison to non-daily drinking was associated with incidence of liver cirrhosis.[59]

Harmful physiological effects[edit]

Emerging evidence suggests that "even drinking within the recommended limits may increase the overall risk of death from various causes, such as from several types of cancer". Better health outcomes among moderate drinkers that some studies reported may be due to the moderate alcohol consumption itself but they may also instead be caused by "other differences in behaviors or genetics between people who drink moderately and people who don't". According to the CDC, recent studies indicate moderate consumption may not have the protective health benefits.[57] A systematic analysis found that "The level of alcohol consumption that minimised harm across health outcomes was zero (95% UI 0·0–0·8) standard drinks per week".[60]

Units and standard drinks[edit]

Main article: Standard drink

Guidelines generally give recommended amounts measured in grams (g) of pure alcohol per day or week. Some guidelines also express alcohol intake in standard drinks or units of alcohol. The size of a standard drink varies widely among the various guidelines, from 8g to 20g, as does the recommended number of standard drinks per day or week.[18][61] The standard drink size is not meant as recommendations for how much alcohol a drink should contain, but rather to give a common reference that people can use for measuring their intake, though they may or may not correspond to a typical serving size in their country.[62]

See also[edit]

References[edit]

Explanatory notes

Citations

  1. ^ a b Armstrong, Elizabeth Mitchell (2017). "Making Sense of Advice About Drinking During Pregnancy: Does Evidence Even Matter?". The Journal of Perinatal Education. 26 (2): 65–69. doi:10.1891/1058-1243.26.2.65. PMC 6353268. PMID 30723369.
  2. ^ "No level of alcohol consumption is safe for our health". www.who.int. Retrieved 25 September 2023.
  3. ^ "Less meat, more plant-based: Here are the Nordic Nutrition Recommendations 2023". www.norden.org. Retrieved 25 September 2023.
  4. ^ Mechanick, Jeffrey I.; Kushner, Robert F. (21 April 2016). Lifestyle Medicine: A Manual for Clinical Practice. Springer Science. p. 153. ISBN 978-3-319-24687-1. However, even light alcohol use (≤1 drink daily) increases the risk of developing cancer, and heavier use (≥2-4 drinks daily) significantly increases morbidity and mortality. Given these and other risks, the American Heart Association cautions that, if they do not already drink alcohol, people should not start drinking for the purported cardiovascular benefits of alcohol.
  5. ^ Deedwania, Prakash (12 January 2015). "Alcohol and Heart Health". American Heart Association (AHA). Archived from the original on 21 January 2016. Retrieved 4 August 2016.
  6. ^ "Alcohol consumption per person". Our World in Data. Archived from the original on 16 March 2020. Retrieved 15 February 2020.
  7. ^ "Managing your alcohol intake". 21 February 2024.
  8. ^ "Australian guidelines to reduce health risks from drinking alcohol". Nhmrc.gov.au. 2020. Retrieved 10 June 2021.
  9. ^ a b "Canada's Guidance on Alcohol and Health". ccsa.ca. Retrieved 25 September 2023.
  10. ^ https://sst.dk/da/borger/en-sund-hverdag/alkohol/anbefalinger-om-alkohol. {{cite web}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)
  11. ^ www.alko.fi https://www.alko.fi/vastuullisesti/alkoholi-ja-terveys/alkoholin-riskirajat. {{cite web}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)
  12. ^ a b "Empfehlungen zum Umgang mit Alkohol" (PDF). Deutsche Hauptstelle für Suchtfragen (in German). Retrieved 30 October 2023.
  13. ^ Department of Health Action Plan to Reduce Alcohol-related Harm in Hong Kong September 2011
  14. ^ https://island.is/en/afengis-vimuvarnir. {{cite web}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)
  15. ^ "Health chiefs cut limits on safe drinking". Alcohol Action Ireland. 26 June 2012. Retrieved 1 March 2020.
  16. ^ a b Alcol, zero o il meno possibile January 2022
  17. ^ https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2024/02/19/japan/science-health/japan-alcohol-consumption-guideline/. {{cite web}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)
  18. ^ a b c d e f g h i "Drinking Guidelines: General Population". IARD.org. International Alliance for Responsible Drinking. Retrieved 23 June 2016.
  19. ^ a b Alcohol Advisory Council of New Zealand (ALAC) What's in a Standard Drink
  20. ^ https://www.helsedirektoratet.no/retningslinjer/forebygging-av-hjerte-og-karsykdom/kartlegging-av-levevaner-og-rad-om-livsstilstiltak-som-forebygging-av-hjerte-og-karsykdom/anbefaling-angaende-inntak-av-alkohol-ved-forebygging-av-hjerte-og-karsykdom. {{cite web}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)
  21. ^ a b Drinking and You Drinking guidelines — units of alcohol Archived 8 February 2007 at the Wayback Machine
  22. ^ a b "Nya gränsvärden för riskbruk av alkohol till hälso- och sjukvården". www.socialstyrelsen.se (in Swedish). 12 September 2023. Retrieved 13 September 2023.
  23. ^ a b "Drink less - Better Health". nhs.uk. 6 July 2021.
  24. ^ a b "What's low-risk drinking? - Rethinking Drinking - NIAAA".
  25. ^ Flak, Audrey L.; Su, Su; Bertrand, Jacquelyn; Denny, Clark H.; Kesmodel, Ulrik S.; Cogswell, Mary E. (January 2014). "The Association of Mild, Moderate, and Binge Prenatal Alcohol Exposure and Child Neuropsychological Outcomes: A Meta-Analysis". Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research. 38 (1): 214–226. doi:10.1111/acer.12214. PMID 23905882.
  26. ^ NICE, Routine antenatal care for healthy pregnant women March 2007
  27. ^ BBC 'No alcohol in pregnancy' advised 25 May 2007
  28. ^ a b National Health and Medical Research Council 2020 Australian Guidelines to Reduce Health Risks from Drinking Alcohol
  29. ^ a b National Health and Medical Research Council 2009 Australian Guidelines to Reduce Health Risks from Drinking Alcohol: Frequently Asked Questions
  30. ^ Canadian Center on Substance Abuse Canada's Low-Risk Alcohol Drinking Guidelines
  31. ^ Department of Health
  32. ^ "Proper Nutrition during Pregnancy". Ministry of Health. State of Israel. Retrieved 23 June 2016.
  33. ^ a b New Zealand Ministry of Health Manatū Hauora Food and Nutrition Guidelines for Healthy Pregnant and Breastfeeding Women
  34. ^ "Alkovett for den lille" (PDF). avogtil.no/. AV OG TIL. Retrieved 23 June 2016.
  35. ^ "Ej längre bruk av alkohol vid graviditet". roi.socialstyrelsen.se (in Swedish). Retrieved 24 September 2023.
  36. ^ "New recommended drinking guidelines welcomed by NICE". www.nice.org.uk. 8 January 2016. Retrieved 17 September 2023.
  37. ^ 'USDA, Dietary Guidelines for Americans 2005, Chapter 9: Alcoholic Beverages Archived 1 July 2007 at the Wayback Machine
  38. ^ Alcohol and pregnancy
  39. ^ a b "Alcohol and breastfeeding (2009) - Retrieved 23 May 2014". Archived from the original on 12 November 2014. Retrieved 23 April 2014.
  40. ^ a b Australian Guidelines 2009
  41. ^ Family Health Service, Department of Health
  42. ^ "Consultation on children, young people and alcohol". Dcsf.gov.uk. Archived from the original on 14 June 2013. Retrieved 30 March 2014.
  43. ^ Parents back alcohol free childhood 17 December 2009
  44. ^ BBC 'No alcohol' urged for under-15s 29 January 2009
  45. ^ Carr, T; Kilian, C; Llamosas-Falcón, L; Zhu, Y; Lasserre, AM; Puka, K; Probst, C. doi:10.1111/add.16456. PMID 38450868 https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fadd.16456. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help); Missing or empty |title= (help)
  46. ^ "Alcohol & Public Health: Fact Sheets - Binge Drinking". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 7 November 2012. Archived from the original on 12 May 2013. Retrieved 7 June 2013.
  47. ^ "Binge drinking". British Medical Association. March 2005. Archived from the original on 3 April 2005. Retrieved 7 June 2013.
  48. ^ "Young and Smashed". SoShiok.com. 4 June 2008.[dead link]
  49. ^ Weathermon R, Crabb DW (1999). "Alcohol and medication interactions" (PDF). Alcohol Res Health. 23 (1): 40–54. PMC 6761694. PMID 10890797. Archived from the original (PDF) on 28 May 2015. Retrieved 25 February 2007.
  50. ^ Centre for Addiction and Mental Health / Centre de toxicomanie et de santé mentale Low-Risk Drinking Guidelines
  51. ^ Alcohol Advisory Council of New Zealand (ALAC) Low Risk Drinking Archived 9 January 2008 at the Wayback Machine
  52. ^ El-Sayed, Mahmoud S.; Ali, Nagia; Ali, Zeinab El-Sayed (1 March 2005). "Interaction Between Alcohol and Exercise". Sports Medicine. 35 (3): 257–269. doi:10.2165/00007256-200535030-00005. ISSN 1179-2035. PMID 15730339. S2CID 33487248.
  53. ^ Barnes, Matthew. J.; Mündel, Toby; Stannard, Stephen. R. (1 January 2010). "Acute alcohol consumption aggravates the decline in muscle performance following strenuous eccentric exercise". Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport. 13 (1): 189–193. doi:10.1016/j.jsams.2008.12.627. ISSN 1440-2440. PMID 19230764.
  54. ^ Lakićević, Nemanja (September 2019). "The Effects of Alcohol Consumption on Recovery Following Resistance Exercise: A Systematic Review". Journal of Functional Morphology and Kinesiology. 4 (3): 41. doi:10.3390/jfmk4030041. ISSN 2411-5142. PMC 7739274. PMID 33467356.
  55. ^ Vella, Luke D.; Cameron-Smith, David (August 2010). "Alcohol, Athletic Performance and Recovery". Nutrients. 2 (8): 781–789. doi:10.3390/nu2080781. ISSN 2072-6643. PMC 3257708. PMID 22254055.
  56. ^ "Mayo Clinic Q and A: Is daily drinking problem drinking?". Mayo Clinic News Network (in Spanish). 16 February 2018. Retrieved 24 April 2022.
  57. ^ a b "Facts about moderate drinking | CDC". CDC. 19 April 2022. Retrieved 24 April 2022.
  58. ^ Heckley, Gawain; Jarl, Johan; Gerdtham, Ulf-G (2017). "Frequency and intensity of alcohol consumption: new evidence from Sweden". The European Journal of Health Economics. 18 (4): 495–517. doi:10.1007/s10198-016-0805-2. ISSN 1618-7598. PMC 5387029. PMID 27282872.
  59. ^ Roerecke, Michael; Vafaei, Afshin; Hasan, Omer SM; Chrystoja, Bethany R; Cruz, Marcus; Lee, Roy; Neuman, Manuela G; Rehm, Jürgen (October 2019). "Alcohol consumption and risk of liver cirrhosis: a systematic review and meta-analysis". The American Journal of Gastroenterology. 114 (10): 1574–1586. doi:10.14309/ajg.0000000000000340. ISSN 0002-9270. PMC 6776700. PMID 31464740.
  60. ^ Griswold, Max G.; Fullman, Nancy; Hawley, Caitlin; et al. (22 September 2018). "Alcohol use and burden for 195 countries and territories, 1990–2016: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2016". The Lancet. 392 (10152): 1015–1035. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(18)31310-2. ISSN 0140-6736. PMC 6148333. PMID 30146330.
  61. ^ Kalinowski, Agnieszka; Humphreys, Keith (1 July 2016). "Governmental standard drink definitions and low-risk alcohol consumption guidelines in 37 countries". Addiction. 111 (7): 1293–1298. doi:10.1111/add.13341. ISSN 1360-0443. PMID 27073140.
  62. ^ Mongan, Deirdre; Long, Jean (22 May 2015). "Standard drink measures throughout Europe; peoples' understanding of standard drinks and their use in drinking guidelines, alcohol surveys and labelling" (PDF). Reducing Alcohol Related Harm. p. 8. Retrieved 26 September 2017.

External links[edit]

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